THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF WOODLAND LANDSCAPES: ISSUES FOR MANAGERS BASED ON THE CASE-STUDY OF SHEFFIELD, ENGLAND AND FOUR THOUSAND YEARS OF HUMAN IMPACT

Ian D. Rotherham and Paul A. Ardron

Abstract

In Britain today not only is there a massive interest in wildlife and the natural world, but in history too. If anything the engagement of local people with history on their doorstep exceeds even that with wild nature. Coverage in the media such as Time Team and Spring Watch for example, reflects these trends. Indeed since Rackham’s seminal works in 1980 and 1986, both research and public interest in landscape history have been growing. In which case you might expect that the emerging realisation that many ancient woods hold amazingly rich resources of archaeology and local history, along with their rich wildlife, would be welcomed by all. Surprisingly, many professional archaeologists have shown little interest in wooded landscapes, and in a number of cases were very dismissive of initial claims that these were rich and interesting historic landscapes. Clearly much archaeology is focused on specific fields and the built environment and built structures are for obvious reasons hugely important to them. This observation flags up a deeper problem though. A lack of effective research and recognition of archaeology in woods may mean that the resource is accidentally damaged by management when this could otherwise be avoided. Furthermore, the implications of a lack of understanding of fundamental drivers of woodland environments can result in misinformed management with serious consequences for future conservation. Of direct relevance to arboriculturists is the lack of recognition of the importance of ‘working’ and especially veteran ‘working’ trees. There is a strong case that many of these should be recognised in archaeological and heritage terms as ‘monuments’.

So whilst ancient woodlands have been extensively researched and in many cases thoroughly documented (Rackham, 1980; Hart, 1993; Jones, 2003), and despite the enormous public and academic interest, there is a surprising lack of awareness of key issues. Some of these are fundamental influences in the contemporary landscape. Furthermore, the archaeological evidence for these factors and activities often remains enigmatic and under-appreciated. There is a dearth of collaborative research that considers both the ecology and archaeology of such sites.
This paper addresses two major problems. The first relates to the fact that most woodland managers, foresters, arboriculturists and ecologists have little experience or training in the recognition or interpretation of archaeological features. Furthermore many (though not all) archaeologists are actively defensive and discourage ecologists from crossing the disciplinary divide.
The second problem relates to the critically important issue of what is recognised as ‘archaeology’. As shown by this research and indeed by others before, the soil, the ground and surface features, and the trees and other vegetation may all hold clues to former management and to former landscapes. The history of human activity is deeply etched in these sites and their ecologies. Yet these aspects of wooded landscapes are often ignored by archaeologists, either more interested in ‘monuments and earthworks’ and ‘artefacts’ than earth and vegetation; or they are simply untrained to recognise or value these subtle landscape features.
Trained archaeologists tend to recognise archaeology ‘in’ the woods, but not the archaeology ‘of’ the woods. Both a cause and a consequence of this situation is that there is presently almost no literature to guide the would-be field worker or to inform a site manager. This applies to both surveying and evaluating the archaeology of their woodland resource. One of the few workers to address these issues in detail is Nicola Bannister with her pioneering studies in the south–east of England (Bannister, 1996). Her work has included detailed site surveys and has provided conservation guidance for site managers.
Research is presented from case-studies in South Yorkshire and North Derbyshire in England; with arguments supported by preliminary observations around Europe. Our main case-study sites are ancient woodlands; in some cases now in the heart of major urban areas, but even here holding landscape evidence over four millennia. Recent work has both raised the level of knowledge of these areas and also highlighted that much of the evidence yet to be formally recognised. Lack of awareness raises the serious need for cross-disciplinary collaboration with effective training and support for field-workers. Many of these ancient woodland landscapes are extremely vulnerable to inappropriate management or to intensive recreational disruption. Often unrecognised they may be lost or degraded very easily and very quickly.

PROGNOSIS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF DECAY AND THE FRACTURE-SAFETY OF HOLLOW TREES

Peter Sterken

Summary

This publication presents a new visual method for the assessment of tree-stability and tree safety. The contribution of this method is the synthesis and integration of previously published tree assessment methods. The key points of this paper are considered as critical for the further enhancement of current visual tree-stability and safety assessment. The briefly described method is very accessible and proves to be highly efficient in the field. By integrating knowledge from different research disciplines and methods, a higher level of understanding, about how trees stand up or fall down, is achieved.

Keywords: Critical wind speed • decay • prognosis • residual wall • safety • visual assessment • wind load analysis

ESTABLISHING A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOIL AERATION AND FINE ROOT DEVELOPMENT OF SEVEN TREE SPECIES USING THE STEEL ROD TECHNIQUE

Gary Watson1

Summary

Steel rods were driven into the soil in spring and summer within the root zone of seven different tree species: American Elm (Ulmus Americana L.), Green Column black maple (Acer nigrum Michx. 'Green Column'), Green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.), honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), pin oak (Quercus palustris Muenchh.), and white oak (Quercus alba L.). After three months, the rods were extracted and the rusting pattern, an indicator of soil aeration, was assessed and correlated with fine root development (FRD). The correlation between FRD and soil aeration was high, indicating that FRD can be estimated by rusting. The steel rod technique may be a useful, low cost tool to help arborists evaluate soil aeration and FRD in urban landscapes. In the field, rapid assessment of the rusting pattern would be possible. Predominantly rusted metal is a good indicator of soil suitable for good fine root development. Predominantly matt grey metal is an indicator of soil that may severely limit root development.

Keywords:

Rust, saturated soil, American Elm, Ulmus Americana, Green Column black maple, Acer nigrum 'Green Column', Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, honeylocust, Gleditsia triacanthos, tuliptree, Liriodendron tulipifera, pin oak, Quercus palustris, white oak, Quercus alba

COMPARTMENTALIZATION TODAY

Kevin T. Smith

Summary

For more than 30 years, the compartmentalization concept has helped tree care practitioners and land managers interpret patterns of decay in living trees. Understanding these patterns can help guide the selection of treatments that meet the needs of people and communities while respecting the underlying tree biology. At its simplest, compartmentalization resists the spread of infection in trees. The term most often refers to infections of wood decay fungi and associated organisms. Compartmentalization is a boundary-setting process that protects the vascular cambium from attack and that favors tree survival. Wood decay fungi and their associates exploit and create opportunities to breach or avoid these boundaries. The challenge for tree care is to favor and support the biology that contributes to safe, healthy, and beautiful trees while understanding that all trees die and that all wood rots.

DEVELOPING A SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY STRATEGY FOR STREET TREES II.
RESEARCH FOR STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENT

J.A. Booth

Summary

Strategic planning and consumer focus are increasing in profile in both central and local government organisations. This paper considers strategy as a means of sustainably managing a street tree population to the satisfaction of the many and varied stakeholders. It also looks at stakeholder perceptions of a street tree population and considers strategy as a persuasive tool which can be used by local government environmental managers to secure the resources they need for effective service provision.

SHORT PAPER:
ROYAL FORESTRY SOCIETY'S PROFESSIONAL DIPLOMA IN ARBORICULTURE 1959 TO 2006

A Personal Review by Peter Bridgeman

Summary

INTRODUCTION

After nearly fifty years the Diploma in Arboriculture of the Royal Forestry Society is to be administered by the RFS in conjunction with the Awarding Body Consortium (ABC) for the 2006 examination. It is now perhaps appropriate therefore to pay tribute to the Royal Forestry Society and this brief history is simply a personal review of the events since 1959. I was involved as an examiner for the Diploma examination from the late 1970s, so I thought I would set down in writing my knowledge of and involvement in its main developments. Many will be aware of these developments but some might not and others could perhaps add to or correct this brief history.

AN EVALUATION OF RESIDENTS' ATTITUDES TO STREET TREES IN SOUTHWEST ENGLAND

John Flannigan

Summary

The majority of research into attitudes to street trees close to residents' homes has been undertaken in the USA, where a generally positive attitude towards such trees exists. Limited UK research thus far suggests less positive attitudes to street trees, which is reinforced by anecdotal reports from professional Arboriculturists who describe negative opinions by residents to nearby trees. Residents from three case study areas in southwest England were questioned about their attitudes to nearby street trees using the survey method developed by North American researchers (SOMMER et al., 1989; SCHROEDER and RUFFOLO, 1996). The survey assessed residents' overall opinion of the trees, attitude to pruning regimes and the Council's maintenance, satisfaction with the benefits and annoyance they receive from the trees, the trees' size, shape, and growth rate. Two case studies considered regularly pollarded street trees and one case study used non-pollarded trees. Residents had a generally good overall opinion of the tree near their home irrespective of tree type, rating visual attractiveness as the highest benefit and raking fallen leaves in autumn as the most annoying feature. Annoyances were rated less highly overall than benefits. Demographic factors appeared to have little influence on attitudes to trees although evidence was collected that found when physical ability is negatively affected by age overall opinion of nearby street trees reduces. No resident reported that the tree outside their home was too small or grew too slowly, suggesting that residents preferred smaller trees.

Keywords: Street trees · benefits · annoyances · residents' perceptions · pollarded trees · tree size

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